John F. Kennedy
Party: Democratic
Presidency: 1961 - 1963 |
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917, into a wealthy Massachusetts family. His parents, Joseph and Rose Kennedy, were obsessed with their children's education. John, nicknamed 'Jack', attended a Catholic boys boarding school, Canterbury, in Connecticut, where he was mischievous and a poor student. Young Kennedy much preferred sports over studying. But he was in reality quite intelligent, excelling at the few classes that he enjoyed, particularly English and History. After Canterbury, Kennedy went to Choate, another elite school in Connecticut, where he continued to be a poor student. Kennedy was very bright, but his teachers hadn't assigned the books he chose to read. In 1936, Kennedy attended Harvard University, where he was extremely popular, especially with the women. In his senior year at Harvard, Kennedy finally grew serious about his studies and in 1939 traveled abroad with his father, who was at that time the US Ambassador to Great Britain, conducting research for his senior thesis. The thesis, which explained why Britain was so unprepared to fight Germany in WWII, went on to be published in 1940 as a book entitled Why Britain Slept.
After graduating Harvard, Kennedy joined the Navy. On August 2, 1943 his patrol torpedo boat was broken in two in a collision with a Japanese warship. Kennedy rescued another sailor and led the survivors to a nearby island. He received the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for "extremely heroic conduct" and a Purple Heart. In 1960, after a career as both a Representative and a Senator for Massachusetts, Kennedy decided to run for President. The campaign of 1960 featured a series of televised debates, where his charisma and charm helped him beat his experienced but tired and sweaty opponent, Richard Nixon(1). |
The Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)
Vinas, Anti-Castro Forces, photograph.
The Bay of Pigs Invasion of April 17, 1961, was supposed to overthrow the communist ruler of Cuba, Fidel Castro, and install a non-communist regime friendly to the US. Unfortunately, it didn't quite work out that way. Starting in March 1960, the CIA trained Cuban exiles for the invasion at training camps in Guatemela. Castro found out about the camps, but didn't do anything. The plan was to take out the Cuban air force in two airstrikes and land the main invasion force at the swampy Bay of Pigs, which was not on the American side of Cuba. Indeed, Kennedy was determined to mask US involvement in the invasion, and used ineffective WWII bombers that failed to take out Cuban airfields. When photos of the disguised planes revealed US involvement, Kennedy canceled the second airstrike altogether. When the invasion of 1,400 men landed, the Cuban military was waiting for them with about 20,000 men and plenty of air support. It didn't help when American air support arrived an hour late due to a difference in time zones. At the end of the day, over 100 of the invaders were dead and 1,200 had been captured. The entire affair was a disgrace and an embarrassment for the Kennedy administration(2).
The Decision to Go to the Moon (1961)
Kennedy's May 25, 1961 Speech before a
Joint Session of Congress, photograph.
After the Bay of Pigs invasion, Kennedy was under enormous pressure to do something that would look good for his administration. The decision to declare the goal of sending an American to the moon came after Kennedy consulted with officials in his cabinet and at NASA, asking what could be done to show a victory over the Soviets. At that point, a humiliated US was losing terribly to the Soviet Union in the space race. On April 12, 1961, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin had become the first person to orbit the Earth. In contrast, US astronaut Alan Shepard, the first American in space had only made a small suborbital flight on May 5. Officials at NASA assured Kennedy that though landing a man on the moon would be difficult, it was a challenge that they could potentially accomplish before the Soviets. Kennedy announced the new goal in speech before a joint session of Congress on May 25, 1961(3).
The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
The Cuban Missile Crisis began when a U-2 flight over Cuba took pictures of Soviet missile sites on the island in October 1962. The situation was delicate; obviously, Kennedy had to demand that the missiles be removed, as they were an immediate threat to American security, but he had to be tactful or risk a nuclear war. After a tense few days meeting with advisors, Kennedy enacted a blockade around Cuba, preventing the Soviets from bringing in more military supplies and demanded the dismantling of the sites. On October 22, he made a televised address to the nation about the crisis. Both the US and the USSR realized the terrible consequences of nuclear war, so Kennedy and Khrushchev publicly made a deal the the missiles would be removed and the sites destroyed in return for a US promise not to invade Cuba. Secretly, Kennedy also agreed to remove US missile sites in Turkey, a fact that was not revealed to the public until 25 years later. The Cuban missile crisis was the closest the world has come to nuclear war, and Kennedy handled it with aplomb(4).
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"Kennedy Addresses the Nation."
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The Vietnam War (1963)
Corbis, Vietnam War; Kennedy, John, photograph.
After WWII, France tried to reassert its control over French Indochina: Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. They failed, and the Geneva Accord of 1954 partitioned Vietnam into South and North Vietnam. The noncommunist leader of South Vietnam, Ngo Dinh Diem, who enjoyed the support of the US, decided not to hold free elections because they would probably result in a communist victory. Communist North Vietnam sponsored the guerrilla Viet Cong in the South, and peace started to crumble. Worried that if Vietnam fell to communism the surrounding countries would follow, a phenomenon described by the Domino Theory, Eisenhower had sent 700 personnel as well as economic aid to South Vietnam. These meager efforts to defend the South proved ineffective. Under Kennedy's administration, the number of US soldiers was increased to 16,000 despite Kennedy's belief that The South Vietnamese were ultimately responsible for fighting the war themselves(5). In 1963, after Diem's government harshly repressed Buddhist demonstrations, South Vietnamese military officials asked the US if it would support a military coup. Kennedy and his advisors discussed the coup extensively in August and October 1963 and they ultimately decided to support it. Diem was assassinated in November(6).
Ich Bin Ein Berliner (1963)
On August 14, 1961, the citizens of West Berlin were astonished to find their city surrounded by construction crews and armed guards. The Soviet Union was building the Berlin Wall, the manifestation of the iron curtain that divided East and West. The reason the Soviet Union was building the wall was to prevent its citizens from escaping communist control by flying out of West Berlin. Many of the people who had been leaving the USSR had been scientists or other highly educated people, and the Soviet Union was losing its investment in their education when they left. Obviously, the construction of the wall alarmed the West, but since the barrier was on Soviet territory there was nothing to be done. Nevertheless, Kennedy increased increased the size of the army and and the number of American intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) in preparation for war. In the Summer of 1963, Kennedy showed his support for the people of Berlin by giving a speech at Rudolph Wilde Platz. The Berliners adored him, and after his assassination the plaza was renamed John F. Kennedy Platz(7).
And no, he never called himself a jelly donut(8). |
"Kennedy - I Am a Berliner."
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Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (1963)
Knudsen, President Kennedy Signs the Limited, photograph.
Since the 1950s, Americans had understood the dangers of nuclear testing in the atmosphere. In 1955, the UN brought many nations together to talk about banning tests, but mutual suspicion between the US and the USSR prevented any official agreement from being reached. Nevertheless, in November 1958, the US and the Soviet Union worked out a deal in which both nations would stop nuclear testing. The moratorium lasted only until September 1961. In August 1961, the Soviet Union announced that it would resume atmospheric testing, and Kennedy reluctantly let the US follow in April 1962. After the Cuban Missile Crisis, though, both Kennedy and Khrushchev were uneasy about the fact that they each had the power to end the world and agreed to another and agreed to another round of discussions. Kennedy sent Averell Harriman to Moscow to reach an agreement with Khrushchev. The dialogue was facilitated by an agreement not to ban underground testing, which eliminated the need for on-site inspections. After just twelve days of discussion, an agreement was announced on July 25, 1963. The Limited Nuclear Test Ban prohibited tests in air, under water, and in space. It was ratified on September 23 and signed by Kennedy on October 7, 1963(9).
The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (1963)
I Have a Dream, photograph.
On August 28, 1963, 250,000 people marched on Washington, D.C. A huge logistical challenge, the march was the largest civil rights protest in the history of the United States. The march started at the Washington monument and ended at the steps of the Lincoln memorial. The last speaker on the steps was Martin Luther King, Jr., who delivered his iconic 'I Have a Dream" speech. The march was largely responsible for the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, one of the pivotal pieces of legislation in the Civil Rights movement(10).
The Assassination of JFK (1963)
A Few Seconds before, photograph.
On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was shot at around 12:30 p.m. as he traveled through downtown Dallas, Texas. He was pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m. and He had been on a speechmaking tour, preparing for the upcoming election year. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson took the oath of office at 2:38 p.m. in the cabin of Air Force One. Lee Harvey Oswald had been arrested for shooting the President, but on Sunday, November 24, as Oswald was being moved from the Dallas police headquarters to the county jail when he was shot at point blank range by Jack Ruby on live television(11).
1. "John F. Kennedy," Bio.com.
2. "The Bay of Pigs," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
3. Garber, "The Decision to Go to the Moon," NASA History Office.
4. "Cuban Missile Crisis," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
5. "Vietnam," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
6. "Vietnam, Diem, the Buddhist," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
7. "The Cold War in Berlin," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
8. "Ich Bin Ein Berliner," in Wikipedia, n.p.
9. "Nuclear Test Ban Treaty," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
10. Nammour, "The March on Washington," NewsHour Extra.
11. "November 22, 1963: Death," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
2. "The Bay of Pigs," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
3. Garber, "The Decision to Go to the Moon," NASA History Office.
4. "Cuban Missile Crisis," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
5. "Vietnam," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
6. "Vietnam, Diem, the Buddhist," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
7. "The Cold War in Berlin," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
8. "Ich Bin Ein Berliner," in Wikipedia, n.p.
9. "Nuclear Test Ban Treaty," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.
10. Nammour, "The March on Washington," NewsHour Extra.
11. "November 22, 1963: Death," John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum.