Harry S. Truman
Party: Democratic
Presidency: 1945 – 1953 |
Harry Truman was born in 1884 in Missouri to a farmer and mule trader. He never attended college, instead taking on odd jobs after high school and joining the National Guard after five years. When World War I rolled around, Truman volunteered to fight. During the war he became a respected and successful leader. In 1934 Truman became a Senator. In the Senate he gained a reputation for being honest and ethical. His reputation was so good that when FDR had to choose a running mate for his fourth term, knowing that he may not live to see it through, he chose Truman. The pair won the election, and only eighty-two days after the inauguration, Roosevelt died leaving Truman to lead the country. As President, Truman was plagued by a Republic congress and low public ratings. To everyone's surprise, however, he was reelected in 1948. During his presidency he ordered the use of the only nuclear weapons ever used in war, and saw end of World War II and the beginning of the Cold War. In 1952 he decided that he would not run for office again, and retired to Independence, Missouri. Truman died December 26, 1972(1).
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Victory in Europe Day (May, 1945)
The unconditional surrender of the German forces in Europe came on May 7, 1945 after months of retreat and capitulation. The next day, May 8, was officially recognized as Victory in Europe Day. On the front, many troops celebrated raucously, while others reflected somberly on the losses of the War in Europe. Throughout the world, people celebrated in their own ways, with varying degrees of debauchery. To the troops in the Pacific theater, however, the news seemed unreal. For them, the war was only half won, and they were fighting as hard as ever(2).
The United Nations (June, 1945)
The signature page of the UN Charter, photograph.
After the failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II from breaking out, it was clear that a new international organization was needed. The first meeting to work on the establishment of the new United Nations was held at Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C., in 1944. The countries in attendance were the US, Britain, the USSR, and China. Later, delegates from fifty nations met in San Francisco to write the final version of the UN Charter, which was signed by those fifty original member states on June 26, 1945. Poland, despite not having a delegation present at the original signing, is considered to be the fifty-first original member. The headquarters of the UN is in New York City, but is international territory. The permanent members of the security council, a group which has the authority to make decisions that bind every nation in the UN, were the US, the USSR, Britain, France, and China(3).
Atomic Bombs (August, 1945)
US interest in nuclear weapons began in 1939 when scientists in America became concerned about the possibility of the Nazis developing their own nuclear bomb. Some of the scientists were refugees from countries that the Nazis had invaded. The Manhattan Project, jointly administrated by the Office of Scientific Research and Development and the War Department after the entry of the US into World War II, was soon underway, developing nuclear weapons at Los Alamos, New Mexico. Under the direction of J. Robert Oppenheimer, the first atomic bomb was successfully tested on July 16, 1945. By then the War in Europe was over, but the war on Japan raged on. The Japanese refused to surrender, even in the face of certain defeat. In fact, they were fighting more viciously than ever. Even the Postsdam Declaration, promising "prompt and utter destruction" if the Japanese did not surrender unconditionally was unable to phase the them. Prior to the decision to use the bombs, the strategy to win the war was an all out invasion of the main Japanese island, estimated to cost one million American lives. Truman, against the moral objections of many of his advisors and many scientists, decided that using the bombs was the best course of action because many American lives would be saved, the War would end quickly with an unconditional surrender, and the US would emerge a world power.
At 8:15 a.m. on August 6, the Enola Gay dropped Little Boy over Hiroshima, an industrial center of 350,000 people. Five square miles, or ninety percent, of the city was destroyed in the blast measuring twelve to fifteen kilotons of TNT. Eighty thousand people were killed instantly. Despite the appalling destruction, however, Japan still would not surrender. Three days later, on August 9, at 11:02 a.m., a second nuclear bomb, Fat Man, was dropped by the Bockscar (aka Bock's Car). The original target had been the city of Kokura, but bad weather forced the plane to drop the bomb on teh secondary target, Nagasaki, instead. Despite Fat Man's greater power, twenty-two kilotons, the mountains around Nagasaki contained the explosion, keeping the destruction to 2.6 square miles. 40,000 people were killed instantly.
On August 15, 1945, Emperor Hirohito of Japan announced a full and unconditional surrender. The formal surrender was carried out on September 2, aboard the US carrier Missouri in Tokyo Bay. World War II had come to a close(4).
The Berlin Airlift (1948-1949)
After World War II, Germany was split into 4 sectors, one each for the victorious, Britain, France, US, and USSR. Berlin was likewise divided, but the city was embedded in the Soviet sector. As the Cold War progressed, it became clear that East Berlin, controlled by the USSR, and West Berlin, controlled by the US, France, and Britain, were growing separate in their economics, politics, and ideologies. The Soviets wanted to control all of Berlin, so on June 24 they started blocking all land and water access to the city. The Allies refused to give up the city, and a great plan to airlift necessary supplies into Berlin was enacted. The task at first seemed impossible, since the two million people of Berlin needed 3,457 tons of food and supplies each day, but as "Operation Vittles" got underway, an effective routine was created. Every three minutes, 24 hours per day, an airplane would land in Berlin. Procedures were optimized to reduce idling and and unloading time and speed up turn around. German volunteers were plentiful, as they received extra rations. The work of supplying the city was so fast that a record time of ten minutes was set to unload ten tons of coal. Finally, on May 12, 1949, the Soviets gave up. It was clear that the Allies were committed to the airlift, and procedures were in place to transition to using even bigger airplanes. The Berlin Airlift was one of the greatest operations in American foreign policy(5).
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"Berlin Airlift."
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NATO (1949)
On April 4, 1949, The United States and several Western European nations signed the North Atlantic Treaty, creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO. The primary goal of NATO was to provide a measures of security to Europe so that individual countries could focus on postwar reconstruction. NATO worked to ensure peace by preventing Soviet expansionism, providing a structure for international military cooperation instead of nationalistic militarism, and encouraging cooperation between European countries.
On the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, NATO worked quickly to organize its international command structure. A Supreme Headquarters was constructed in France and US General Dwight D. Eisenhower was installed as the Supreme Allied Commander(6).
On the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950, NATO worked quickly to organize its international command structure. A Supreme Headquarters was constructed in France and US General Dwight D. Eisenhower was installed as the Supreme Allied Commander(6).
McCarthyism (1950)
United Press, Joseph McCarthy,
photograph.
Since before WWII, the American public had been scared of Communism, but after the war, and especially after the detonation of the first Soviet nuclear weapon in 1949, this fright rose to a feverish pitch. What everyone was concerned about was spies. No one knew if their neighbors were secretly forking for the Soviets. On February 9, 1950, Senator Joseph McCarthy used this national fear to launch a massive anti-communist witch hunt. He made a speech in Wheeling, West Virginia, in which he claimed to have the names of 205 communists in the Department of State. On February 20, he was called to present his evidence before the Senate. He talked of eighty-one cases, and despite weak evidence the Senate launched an investigation. For four years McCarthy enjoyed the national spotlight, accusing officials of all ranks of ridiculous crimes. His fall finally came in 1954, when he made the mistake of attacking the army in a series of televised hearings. Through television, the American public was exposed to McCarthy's meanness and dubious methods. He was officially censured by the Senate, and he died an unsung alcoholic just three years later.
But McCarthyism wasn't just a one man show. It was an attitude that gripped the nation. In one famous example, The House Un-American Activities Committee, HUAC, targeted Hollywood. Ten notable figures in the industry were identified by the committee as being communist and were blacklisted. Many were forces to work under false names. In the hunt for communists, the constitutional rights of American citizens were being ignored(7).
But McCarthyism wasn't just a one man show. It was an attitude that gripped the nation. In one famous example, The House Un-American Activities Committee, HUAC, targeted Hollywood. Ten notable figures in the industry were identified by the committee as being communist and were blacklisted. Many were forces to work under false names. In the hunt for communists, the constitutional rights of American citizens were being ignored(7).
The Korean War (1950-1953)
Korean War Aritllery, photograph.
A long time possession of the Empire of Japan, the peninsula of Korea was liberated by the Allies during World War II. After the war, Korea was split at the 38th parallel into North and South Korea. In the north, a communist government led by Kim Il Sung and supported by the USSR emerged, and in the south, an anti-communist dictatorial government under Syngman Rhee backed by the US emerged. Both states believed that the peninsula should be united under their rule.. Eventually, on June 25, 1950, 75,000 North Korean soldier crossed the border into South Korea, starting the Korean War. For the United States, the invasion of South Korea was a test of the policy of containment, and many feared that it was the beginning of a Communist invasion of the world. At first the war was merely defensive, but when US efforts to turn back the North Koreans failed, the goals of the ware were reevaluated. The war became one of offense. With a new goal of rolling back communism on the peninsula, the US pushed forward with an amphibious attack at Inchon and succeeded in pushing the North Koreans north of the 38th parallel toward China. As the war approached the Chinese border, Chinese leader Mao Zedong warned that if the US got too close to the border, China would enter the war on the side of North Korea. While Truman and his advisors wanted to avoid an all-out war with China, General MacArthur refused to back down. When he started publicly arguing with the President in 1951, Truman had no choice but to fire him for insubordination. After MacArthur was fired, peace talks began. But due to disagreement over what should be done with prisoners of war, the talks dragged on for over two years while casualty counts climbed. In the end, an armistice was signed on July 27, 1953. Prisoners of war were repatriated and a demilitarized zone was created on the border between North and South Korea, which remained generally at the 38th parallel. Overall, nearly 40,000 Americans died and 100,000 were injured. In addition, ten percent of Korea's prewar population was dead(8).
1. "Harry S. Truman," Bio.com.
2. Sheffield, "Victory in Europe Day," BBC - History.
3. "The United Nations: An Introduction," United Nations Cyber Schoolbus.
4. "The Bombing of Hiroshima," History.
5. "The Berlin Airlift," Spirit of Freedom.
6. "A Short History of NATO," North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
7. "McCarthyism," U.S. History.
8. "Korean War," History.
2. Sheffield, "Victory in Europe Day," BBC - History.
3. "The United Nations: An Introduction," United Nations Cyber Schoolbus.
4. "The Bombing of Hiroshima," History.
5. "The Berlin Airlift," Spirit of Freedom.
6. "A Short History of NATO," North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
7. "McCarthyism," U.S. History.
8. "Korean War," History.